Publications

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The report evaluates the design and implementation of Punjab’s flagship social protection initiative for senior citizens. Drawing on household‑level data and programme records, the study highlights the scheme’s coverage, targeting efficiency, and fiscal sustainability. The findings provide evidence‑based insights into how the programme supports vulnerable elderly populations while identify ..

Heavy tobacco consumption in Jordan poses serious public health and economic challenges. SPDC’s report An Analysis of the Tobacco Market in Jordan: A Household Survey provides nationally representative evidence on consumption patterns, prevalence, and affordability. The study highlights widespread cigarette and waterpipe use, with particular concern for youth smoking, and offers policymakers act ..

Air pollution remains one of Pakistan’s most pressing environmental and public health challenges. SPDC’s report Pakistan’s Air Pollution Conundrum: The Challenge of Inconsistent Policy Implementation highlights how weak enforcement, fragmented governance, and inconsistent data systems undermine efforts to tackle the worsening air quality crisis. The findings provide evidence‑based recommen ..

The report provides new empirical evidence on how smokers respond to price changes, offering critical insights for excise tax policy and tobacco control. It highlights both the direct impact of cigarette price increases and substitution effects across brands and product types. The findings confirm that higher cigarette prices reduce consumption, while also revealing substitution patterns between p ..

Tax evasion remains a major challenge in Pakistan’s tobacco control policies, with tobacco industry often overstating illicit trade. Drawing on a nationwide survey conducted after the February 2023 tax hike, SPDC’s report The Extent of Illicit Trade of Cigarettes in Pakistan provides fresh evidence on the scale and drivers of non‑tax‑paid cigarette consumption. The study quantifies revenue ..

The report Consumption Behaviour of Cigarette Smokers in Pakistan: The 2023 Survey presents findings from a nationwide survey of nearly 9,000 households conducted after the February 2023 tax hike. The study assesses how smokers adjusted consumption through quitting, reducing daily intake, or shifting brands. The results are compared with a similar 2021-22 survey where applicable. ..

Pakistan’s economy faces a severe crisis marked by high inflation, low growth, dwindling reserves, currency depreciation, and deep fiscal imbalances compounded by political uncertainty. Against this backdrop, the Federal Budget 2023-24 was presented. SPDC’s report Pakistan’s Economic Outlook and the Federal Budget 2023–24 analyzes macroeconomic trends and fiscal priorities, assessing impli ..

The report presents findings from a nationwide household survey of over 7,500 current and past smokers. The study examines price and non‑price drivers of cigarette use, highlighting how tax‑induced price changes influence quitting, reduced intake, and brand substitution. The report provides policymakers with actionable insights for excise reform and public health strategies to curb tobacco use ..

Tobacco taxation is a key tool to reduce consumption, yet Pakistan’s system remains undermined by inefficiencies in tax collection. The Federal Board of Revenue relies on manufacturers’ self‑declared production, leaving room for under‑reporting and tax evasion in the absence of effective audits. SPDC’s report Estimating the Under‑Reporting of Cigarette Production in Pakistan quantifies ..

The report examines how weak local governance and centralized fiscal structures have constrained urban development, particularly in Karachi. The study argues for a strengthened Provincial Finance Commission framework that integrates urban and rural indicators, alongside greater fiscal autonomy and constitutional safeguards for local governments. Its evidence‑based recommendations highlight pathw ..

The macroeconomic impacts of tobacco taxation is an under-researched subject in Pakistan. The lack of empirical evidence often leads to an inflated perception of the size and contribution of the tobacco industry to the economy. This study analyzes the macroeconomic and distributional impacts of the change in tobacco use prevalence resulting from a change in tobacco taxes in Pakistan. Using a metho ..

The 18th Constitutional Amendment 2010 devolved key powers to provincial governments, reshaping Pakistan’s education sector. Using household data from PSLM surveys, the report evaluates provincial performance across five core indicators of educational achievement. Composite indices reveal comparatively low post‑Amendment growth, particularly in Sindh. The study highlights governance and financ ..

The report explores how household expenditure on cigarettes displaces essential spending on food, health, and education. Using nationally representative survey data, the study quantifies the welfare costs of tobacco consumption and highlights its broader social and economic consequences. The findings underscore the need for stronger tobacco control policies and excise reforms to protect household ..

SPDC initiated a consultative process to address violent extremism in Sindh, recognizing the lack of localized research. SPDC’s report Interactive Dialogues on Countering Violent Extremism: The Composite Report synthesizes insights from nationwide consultations with diverse stakeholders. It highlights community perspectives, institutional challenges, and policy recommendations for addressing vio ..

This study is the first attempt to estimate how tobacco use shapes household consumption patterns in Pakistan, complementing global research on the crowding‑out effect of cigarette spending. Using data from the Pakistan Household Integrated Economic Survey 2015-16, the report shows how tobacco expenditure displaces essential spending on food, health, and education, while also affecting intra‑h ..

The report assesses the gap between actual cigarette production and reported figures to estimate the untapped revenue potential. Using survey data and industry analysis, the study highlights how under‑reporting erodes fiscal gains and weakens excise policy. Its findings support expanding the tax base, strengthening compliance, and enhancing the effectiveness of tobacco control measures. ..

Economic and Social Costs of Violence Against Women and Girls in Pakistan: Country Technical Report ..

The report provides an in‑depth examination of Pakistan’s latest population census. It highlights demographic trends, provincial variations, and urban–rural shifts, offering evidence on population growth, distribution, and structural changes. The study presents critical insights for policymakers, researchers, and development practitioners to better understand Pakistan’s evolving demographi ..

Poverty and inequality are estimated from household surveys, but their sporadic nature prevents the creation of continuous time‑series data needed for rigorous analysis. To address this gap, SPDC’s report Smoothing Sporadic Estimates of Poverty and Inequality in Pakistan applies interpolation techniques to construct consistent series of poverty incidence and inequality measures for 1985–2016 ..

The report examines how Pakistan’s key export industries - garments, footwear, and electronics - align with international labour standards. Drawing on fieldwork, stakeholder interviews, and policy analysis, the study highlights compliance challenges, governance gaps, and the implications of trade preference schemes. Its findings provide evidence‑based recommendations to strengthen labour right ..

Poverty and income inequality is estimated from household surveys which provide detailed information on household income and consumption along with socio-economic characteristics. However, these surveys are conducted sporadically with irregular intervals. Thus the resultant estimates are not in the form of a continuous time-series, which is a prerequisite for a rigorous analysis of the relationshi ..

The report compares the design and outcomes of fiscal transfer systems in India and Pakistan. It examines constitutional frameworks, allocation formulas, and institutional practices to highlight similarities, differences, and lessons for reform. The study highlights how intergovernmental transfers shape equity, efficiency, and fiscal federalism, offering guidance for strengthening resource distrib ..

The report quantifies the broader costs of smoking beyond public health. Drawing on national data, the study estimates the economic burden of tobacco through healthcare expenditures, productivity losses, and premature mortality. It highlights how tobacco use erodes fiscal stability, undermines growth, and creates implicit subsidies borne by households and the public sector. ..

This study provides updated poverty and vulnerability statistics from the Household Integrated Economic Survey (HIES) 2015–16. Results show that 38 percent of the population lived below the poverty line, with rural poverty deeper and more severe than urban. The number of poor rose from 61 million in 2010-11 to 74 million in 2015-16, while 51 percent of the population was vulnerable to poverty. ..

The report investigates the links between women’s empowerment and domestic violence. Using nationally representative survey data, the study examines how factors such as education, employment, decision‑making, and social norms influence the risk of spousal violence. Its findings offer insights for policymakers and practitioners to design interventions that strengthen women’s empowerment and r ..

The report evaluates household vulnerability and institutional capacity across selected districts in Pakistan, including Lower Dir, Nowshera, Rahim Yar Khan, and Sargodha. how households in Pakistan cope with economic shocks and identifies gaps in existing social protection mechanisms. By analyzing how communities cope with economic shocks and identifying gaps in social protection delivery, the st ..

SPDC’s Urban Citizens’ Perception Survey on Public Service Delivery (2015) gathered opinions from nearly 4,000 households across Pakistan on access, quality, and reliability of public services. Households were randomly selected from three tiers of local government- Municipal/Metropolitan Corporations, Municipal Committees, and Town Committees. This research, drawn from Chapter 5 of SPDC’s an ..

Political Economy of Social Development in Pakistan ..

The report analyzes the challenges and opportunities of aligning Pakistan’s development agenda with the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). It examines institutional readiness, resource mobilization, and policy coherence, highlighting gaps in governance and coordination. The study highlights how Pakistan can integrate SDGs into national planning, strengthen accountability, and ensure inclus ..

The report uses MICS data from Punjab and Balochistan to assess child nutrition, mortality, and schooling across poverty and gender lines. Findings show higher deprivation in poor households, mixed gender disparities in nutrition, evidence of gender bias in child mortality in Balochistan, and persistent disadvantage for rural girls in school enrollment. ..

The study analyzes determinants of child activity with regard to schooling, working, or neither schooling nor working in the age cohort 5-14 years, using Punjab’s MICS 2010–11 data. It examines the role of household poverty, parental education, gender equity, and mother’s autonomy in shaping these decisions. Results show poverty strongly increases child idleness and reduces schooling, while ..

This research assesses the distributional characteristics of growth in Pakistan by applying statistical techniques suggested in the empirical literature on poverty and income inequality. An attempt is also made to determine the relative contribution of economic growth and distribution of income to changes in poverty. Various episodes of growth are considered during the period 1988-2011. The findin ..

SPDC’s report State of the Economy: An Evaluation of the Federal Budget 2015–16 provides an independent assessment of Pakistan’s fiscal priorities and macroeconomic outlook. It reviews revenue and expenditure trends, budgetary allocations, and policy measures, highlighting their implications for growth, equity, and social development. ..

The study examines how climate risks intersect with gender inequality in communities exposed to floods, droughts, and cyclones. Covering districts such as Thatta, Badin, Dadu, and Tharparkar, the study highlights women’s heightened vulnerability due to limited access to resources, mobility constraints, and socio‑economic disadvantages. It provides evidence for designing inclusive climate adapt ..

This report presents fresh evidence on how Pakistan’s general sales tax (GST) affects households across income groups. By analyzing the distributional burden of GST, the study reveals its regressive impact showing that poorer households bear a disproportionately higher share of the tax relative to their income. The findings underscore the need for reforms that make Pakistan’s tax system more e ..

The study highlights the major characteristics of schooling in rural Pakistan by providing a situation analysis in terms of access, equality and quality of education. A cohort-wise analysis for primary (5-9 age cohort) and secondary (10-14 age cohort) levels is carried out to look at the prevailing situation across provinces in terms of enrolment status, trends in participation and gender disparit ..

The study maps the extent of rural poverty and deprivation using multiple measurement approaches, alongside indices of social exclusion. It highlights how inequality in income and land ownership shapes rural disadvantage and interacts with economic growth. The report also reviews social protection responses, offering evidence for more inclusive policies to reduce poverty and bridge rural–urban d ..

The report examines how Pakistan’s system of fiscal transfers can be leveraged to promote more equitable and gender-sensitive education financing. By analyzing provincial allocations and expenditure patterns, the study highlights gaps in resource distribution that perpetuate gender disparities in access to education. It proposes reforms to strengthen fiscal design, ensuring that intergovernmenta ..

This research note provides sub-national estimates of monetary poverty with the help of information available in two household surveys conducted during 2010-11. Data of Pakistan Social and Living Standards Measurement Survey (PSLM) and Household Integrated Economic Survey (HIES) are combined to produce aggregate poverty measures using small area estimation technique. The technique uses the welfare ..

The report critically reviews Pakistan’s federal budget for FY2013-14, assessing its ambitious targets against prevailing economic realities. It examines revenue measures, expenditure priorities, and fiscal balance, highlighting the challenges of implementation amid structural constraints. The analysis provides insights into the budget’s implications for growth, equity, and macroeconomic stabi ..

This study explores the role of women in rural non‑farm employment, highlighting both opportunities and barriers in diversifying livelihoods beyond agriculture. Using household survey data, it examines gender disparities in access to jobs, wages, and working conditions, while assessing the contribution of non‑farm activities to rural income and resilience. ..

This study analyses disparities among provinces and districts for the years 2011, 2009 and 2005 with respect to household socio-economic deprivations and could be used as a reliable base for provincial and district development policies. Analysis presented in this study is based on 17 variables, arranged into five groups of composite indicators, reflecting deprivation in education, health, housing ..

This study moves beyond income-based measures to quantify multidimensional poverty in Pakistan using household survey data. Applying the Foster–Greer–Thorbecke indices across education, health, housing, and asset deprivation, it tracks poverty levels for 2005, 2009, and 2011 to assess changes over time. The analysis reveals persistent deprivation despite economic shifts, offering evidence for ..

This research paper provides poverty statistics estimated from the latest available household survey data. The estimates show that an overall 38 percent of the population was poor according to the methodology adopted for this study during the year 2010-11. The incidence, depth and severity of rural poverty are relatively higher as compared to urban areas. The estimates also indicate an increase of ..

The report quantifies the economic and social burden of violence against women in Karachi, highlighting its impact on household welfare, productivity, and public resources. Drawing on survey evidence, the report examines the hidden costs of gender-based violence, from healthcare and legal expenses to lost income and diminished opportunities. The findings underscore the urgent need for policy inter ..

This study examines how large-scale infrastructure projects, such as the Lyari Expressway, affect displaced communities with a particular focus on gender. It highlights the social and economic challenges faced by women during resettlement, including loss of livelihoods, disruption of social networks, and limited access to services. The findings highlight the importance of integrating gender-sensit ..

This working paper critically examines the role of civil society in Pakistan, assessing its capacity to influence governance, social development, and democratic accountability. It explores the challenges of institutional weakness, limited outreach, and political constraints that have hindered civil society’s effectiveness. The report provides insights into how civil society organizations can str ..

This SPDC study reviews Pakistan’s fragmented social protection landscape, where programs often emerge as ad hoc responses or donor-driven initiatives without a coherent national framework. Drawing on recent empirical research, it outlines existing schemes, identifies duplication and gaps, and assesses their effectiveness in reaching vulnerable groups. The report offers evidence-based recommenda ..

The study analyzes how government spending on education and health is distributed across gender, highlighting disparities in access and outcomes. Using dynamic assessment methods, the report tracks shifts in resource allocation and evaluates whether public investments are responsive to gender needs. ..

This report explores how trade liberalisation has reshaped employment patterns in Pakistan, with a particular focus on gender. It examines sectoral shifts, wage disparities, and labour market participation, highlighting both opportunities and challenges for women. The study provides evidence-based insights for designing trade and labour policies that promote inclusive growth and reduce gender ineq ..

This SPDC study investigates how Pakistan’s Zakat program affects men and women differently, highlighting gender disparities in access, coverage, and benefits. By analyzing household survey data, the report assesses whether social safety nets adequately address women’s vulnerabilities and contribute to poverty reduction. ..

This study is the first attempt to quantify the extent of multidimensional poverty in the context of Pakistan. It involves developing multidimensional poverty indices (headcount, poverty gap, and poverty severity) and comparing them with the traditional income approach. It has been estimated, using household data for 2004-05, that about 54 percent of the population is poor in terms of socio-econom ..

This paper estimates household vulnerability as “expected poverty” using cross‑sectional survey data, given the absence of long‑term panel datasets. Results show that about 52 percent of the population was vulnerable in 2004-05, with rural households facing higher risk than urban. While monetary poverty declined between 2001 and 2005, vulnerability rose from 50 to 52 percent, underscoring ..

This SPDC study captures the perspectives of district officials and Nazims on Pakistan’s local governance system. Through semi‑structured interviews, it explores satisfaction with the system, coordination across government tiers, financing challenges, development planning issues, and the role of community empowerment institutions. The findings highlight both areas of strength and sources of fr ..

This paper uses Pakistan Social and Living Standard Measurement Survey (PSLM) 2004-2005 to examine labour market earnings. The earning function controls for educational qualifications in addition to years of schooling and other conventional correlates. The estimated returns to additional years of schooling are slightly lower than previous estimates for Pakistan. The findings of the study are consi ..

The report analyzes Pakistan’s fiscal policy stance in the 2008‑09 budget, focusing on revenue mobilization, expenditure priorities, and deficit management. It highlights the challenges of balancing growth and stability amid rising inflation, energy shortages, and external pressures. The report provides evidence‑based insights into the trade‑offs faced by policymakers and the implications ..

The study evaluates the economic and social effects of microfinance programs, analyzing income, expenditure, child education, and women’s empowerment outcomes. Based on survey data from 3,400 respondents across six major institutions, the findings suggest microfinance helps smooth consumption and modestly supports income generation. Positive impacts are observed in child school enrollment among ..

This research focuses on changes in the poverty status of rural households to explore the main determinants of upward and downward income and poverty mobility. The study uses panel survey data for District Badin, which is among the poorest districts of the Sindh province. Households interviewed earlier by the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) during 1986-91, were surveyed again ..

In this study, SPDC provides updated poverty and inequality estimates for 2004–05 using unit‑level household survey data and a consistent methodology for national and regional poverty lines. It highlights shifts in poverty incidence, regional disparities, and changes in income distribution, offering a clearer picture of socio‑economic conditions. ..

The expansionary economic policies of the government and of the central bank (State Bank of Pakistan – SBP), which on one side resulted in impressive economic performance, stimulated a rise in the Consumer Price Index (CPI) on the other. This initiated a debate on the determinants of the recent inflation. Some blamed fiscal policy or monetary policy, while others blamed imported inflation, admin ..

This study examines how trade liberalisation has influenced gender disparities in Pakistan across labour markets, education, and health from 1973 to 2005. Using econometric analysis, it identifies key determinants such as trade openness, per capita GDP, and the ratio of girls’ to boys’ schools. The findings highlight persistent inequalities, particularly in employment and education, underscori ..

The report provides district‑level poverty estimates for Pakistan by combining PSLM and HIES 2004–05 data and applying small area estimation methods. Separate consumption functions for urban and rural areas are used to predict poverty incidence across provinces and districts. The results offer a granular view of regional disparities often hidden in national averages, providing policymakers wit ..

This study tracks changes in access and inequality in education using the District Education Index (DEI), a composite measure of enrollment and literacy. Drawing on the 1998 Population Census and PSLM 2005 survey of 76,500 households, the analysis shows notable progress in enrollment and literacy rates, with the DEI recording an average annual growth of about 5 percent. The findings highlight impr ..

The objective of this research is to update district-wise Indices of Multiple Deprivations 1998, using the latest available data of the Pakistan Social and Living Standards Measurement Survey 2005 (PSLM, 2005). The period from 1998 to 2005, offers an opportunity to evaluate performance of the present government in terms of policies adopted for poverty reduction and in bringing down regional, socia ..

The purpose of this research is to highlight changes in human development status of districts of Pakistan during the period between 1998 and 2005. The standard summary measure, Human Development Index (HDI) proposed by UNDP, is applied at the district level. District HDIs, estimated for both periods will provide an indication of existing trends in regional disparities in terms of economic developm ..

Booklet, economics, tariffs and import, quotas ..

The Review represents the efforts of SPDC to objectively present the situation with respect to the state of the economy. It points out the improvements in economic performance and an increase in the economy's sustainable rate of growth over the past few years, which are in part a result of the improved macroeconomic policy environment. It also highlights, however, the growing macroeconomic imbalan ..

The study estimates the size of Pakistan’s black economy and examines its implications for macroeconomic policy. Using a modified monetary approach, it assesses how tax and tariff reforms - particularly those of the 1990s - have influenced unrecorded economic activity and tax evasion practices. The findings highlight the distortions the black economy creates in official statistics and underscore ..

The research examines how fiscal, monetary, and structural reforms have shaped total factor productivity (TFP) in Pakistan. Using recent data, it analyzes sector‑wise productivity trends in the context of wide‑ranging reforms since 1999-2000, including changes in exchange rates, interest rates, and fiscal policy. The findings highlight the drivers and constraints of productivity growth, offeri ..

This report is motivated to fill the gap in policy analysis by estimating the human capital index (HCI) at the provincial level from 1982-83 to 2001-02. The accumulated human capital is estimated using the Labourincome based methodology. The index is computed for the three sectors of the economy: Agriculture, Manufacturing and Services, by using data from respective Labour Force Surveys. The estim ..

This study examines the profound social and economic challenges faced by cancer patients and their families. Drawing on survey evidence, it highlights the heavy financial costs of treatment, the strain on household resources, and the broader social impacts of coping with long‑term illness. The findings underscore the urgent need for policies that improve access to affordable care, strengthen sup ..

The Annual Review presents an objective assessment of Pakistan’s economic performance. It highlights impressive growth achievements and the government’s role in driving expansion, while warning of emerging signs of overheating such as rising inflation, widening deficits, and external pressures. The study underscores the trade‑offs between sustaining growth and ensuring stability. ..

This study uses large‑scale simulations to quantify the economic losses from the October 8, 2005 earthquake. The analysis shows that growth could initially decline by 1.5 percentage points, with permanent losses in capital, consumption, and income if reconstruction is absent. Under a $5.8 billion rebuilding plan spread over five years, the economy recovers only partially, regaining about half th ..

The study develops a consistent framework for compiling provincial accounts in Pakistan, covering the period 1973-2000. Using national income data and sectoral indicators, it estimates provincial GDP and growth trends, providing insights into regional disparities and structural changes over nearly three decades. The methodology ensures comparability across provinces and over time, offering policym ..

Vertical Imbalance and NFC-2004 ..

The Annual Review offers an objective assessment of Pakistan’s economic performance, acknowledging recent gains while identifying areas of weakness that demand policy attention. It highlights improved macroeconomic indicators and stronger investment flows, but also warns of inflationary pressures and external imbalances. In line with SPDC’s perspective, the study emphasizes equity, employment ..

The study explores the complex linkages between poverty, economic growth, and inequality from 1979 to 2002. Using time‑series data and a multi‑variate regression framework, it estimates poverty elasticity with respect to growth and inequality, and identifies macroeconomic and structural correlates of inequality. The findings confirm that inequality strongly influences poverty reduction, with i ..

The research identifies non‑monetary correlates of household consumption to predict poverty incidence using survey data. Separate welfare functions for urban and rural areas are applied to provincial and district levels, enabling poverty estimation through light monitoring tools such as the CWIQ. The results show that 33 percent of the population was poor in 2001-02, with rural areas facing high ..

This working paper traces the evolution of Pakistan’s nonprofit sector, examining its historical roots, institutional development, and role in social service delivery. It highlights the sector’s growth in response to gaps in public provision, its diverse organizational forms, and the challenges of regulation and sustainability. By situating nonprofits within Pakistan’s broader socio‑econom ..

The report examines the scale and dynamics of Pakistan’s external debt, analyzing its underlying causes, structural complexities, and long‑term implications for economic stability. It highlights how persistent borrowing, balance of payments pressures, and policy choices have contributed to rising debt vulnerabilities. The study also explores potential remedies, including fiscal discipline, exp ..

In a knowledge‑driven economy, unequal access to education fuels poverty and inequality. SPDC’s study introduces a District Education Index (DEI) to measure disparities across Pakistan, linking education outcomes with district‑level economic development. The findings show how exclusion from education slows growth and entrenches inequality, underscoring the need for equitable investment in le ..

Growing concern in developing economies highlights how spatial and regional disparities in income, activity, and social indicators can fuel instability. This SPDC study documents shifts in regional inequality in Pakistan from the early 1980s to the late 1990s, analyzing provincial and district‑level development trends. By mapping changes across multiple dimensions, the report provides evidence t ..

This study explores the role of microfinance in reducing poverty in Pakistan, assessing its impact on household welfare and economic empowerment. Access to small loans can transform lives by enabling the poor to invest in livelihoods, education, and health. By highlighting both opportunities and challenges, the report provides evidence to strengthen microfinance as a tool for inclusive development ..

The purpose of this research is to observe the impact of the individual and aggregate-level education on the fertility rate. The empirical investigation has been extended to observe the determinants of fertility using aggregate district data. The estimated coefficients of the macro fertility model establish a case for higher education for women to achieve a noticeable reduction in the fertility ra ..

This report estimates the economic benefits of education in Pakistan using household survey data from 1990-91 and 2001-02. Results show that returns are highest for higher secondary and tertiary education, while gains from primary schooling have declined. Private schooling and English‑medium instruction also yield significant advantages. By mapping variations across provinces, sectors, and regio ..

This paper estimates the extent of undernutrition in urban Pakistan in terms of calorie consumption after controlling heterogeneity in household characteristics. It also evaluates the sensitivity of price and income shocks on incidence, depth and severity of undernutrition. Approximately 27 percent incidence of urban undernourishment or food poverty is computed from the Household Integrated Econom ..

Geographical targeting can make poverty alleviation more effective by directing resources to the areas most in need. Yet Pakistan has lacked systematic poverty maps or deprivation indices, leaving interventions ad‑hoc and fragmented. This study develops a Spatial Deprivation Index (SDI) using census data to identify pockets of multi‑dimensional poverty across districts. By documenting these pa ..

Zakat has long been viewed as a tool for poverty alleviation and social justice. This report examines the impact of the Zakat program, assessing its effectiveness in reaching the poor and reducing vulnerability. By analyzing distribution mechanisms and outcomes, the report highlights both the strengths and limitations of Zakat as a social safety net, offering insights for more equitable and effici ..

The purpose of this research is to demonstrate how ‘landlordism’ (land concentration and landlessness) impede education attainments and consequently, increase poverty and income inequality. The study is based on the latest data of the Agricultural Census (2000) for Punjab1 province, which is the heartland of Pakistan’s agriculture. School Life Expectancy (SLE), which is a useful composite me ..

This study investigates the dynamics of poverty and inequality during Pakistan’s first decade (1988-1999) of Structural Adjustment Lending (SAL). Using comparable household surveys, it finds poverty incidence rose from 24% to 30% and the Gini coefficient from 0.34 to 0.38. Decomposition analysis shows that weak economic growth, especially in rural areas, was the main driver of rising poverty, hi ..

The objectives of this study are to: document the size, scope, internal structure, finance and legal position of the nonprofit sector in the country; examine the relations between the nonprofit sector and government and identify the ways in which this relationship can be improved; to improve public awareness of this sector; and provide a more reliable basis for designing policies toward it. The es ..

Public budgets often obscure how resources are actually allocated across departments. This study restructures Sindh’s budget data from the traditional head‑of‑account format into a department‑wise framework, making expenditures more transparent and policy‑relevant. By aligning spending with departmental responsibilities, the report enables clearer analysis of priorities, accountability, ..

Cost of Living Index by City of Pakistan ..

This study tracks TFP trends in Pakistan from 1972-73 to 1997-98, showing that the slowdown in growth during the 1990s was driven not only by weaker investment but also by declining productivity. Sectoral analysis explores where stagnation occurred and identifies structural factors behind the loss of momentum. The findings highlight the implications for long‑term growth and competitiveness, unde ..

The nonprofit sector plays a vital role in advancing social development, yet its scale and diversity in Pakistan remain under‑documented. This SPDC study provides a comprehensive profile of nonprofit organizations, mapping their size, scope, and contributions across key areas such as education, health, and community welfare. By highlighting trends and challenges, the report offers evidence to st ..

The report examines the relationship between social development and economic growth in Pakistan, testing whether improvements in education, health, and welfare indicators can be explained by changes in per capita income. Using a composite Social Development Index (SDI) built from consistent time‑series data, the analysis highlights how policy regimes have shaped outcomes. The findings provide in ..

Microcredit has been promoted as a pathway out of poverty, but its real impact depends on the experiences of borrowers themselves. SPDC’s study draws on consultations with poor households in Pakistan, exploring how access to credit shapes livelihoods, coping strategies, and empowerment. By highlighting both opportunities and constraints, the report provides evidence to refine microfinance progra ..

The study uses household income and expenditure surveys to measure poverty incidence across Pakistan, highlighting variations by region and over time. The findings reveal how economic shocks and structural factors shape household welfare, offering evidence to guide targeted interventions and strategies for reducing poverty. ..

The report analyzes the Federal Budget 2001–02, assessing how stabilization measures such as deficit control and revenue mobilization interact with growth objectives. By examining expenditure priorities and macroeconomic trade‑offs, the report provides evidence to inform policies that safeguard stability while fostering sustainable development.   ..

The spillover effects of the Afghan conflict have reshaped Pakistan’s economic landscape, creating both challenges and policy dilemmas. SPDC’s study assesses the economic impact of the Afghan war, examining pressures on trade, fiscal stability, and social welfare. By outlining strategic options, the report provides evidence to help policymakers balance security concerns with sustainable growth ..

Strong governance is central to achieving sustainable growth and equitable development. The report outlines the core elements of economic governance - including transparency, accountability, fiscal discipline, and institutional capacity - that shape policy effectiveness in Pakistan. ..

Developed by the Macroeconomic Framework Sub‑Group of the Economic Advisory Board, this SPDC study revises projections in light of updated data and institutional feedback. It presents a medium‑term roadmap for Pakistan’s economy, outlining key indicators to guide fiscal, monetary, and external sector policies. By modeling scenarios for growth, investment, and resource mobilization, the repor ..

Social safety nets are critical for protecting vulnerable households, yet their effectiveness depends on design and delivery. This study evaluates Pakistan’s key safety net programs, assessing coverage, targeting, and impact on poverty reduction. By identifying strengths and gaps, the report provides evidence to improve welfare policies and ensure that support reaches those who need it most. ..

The report examines how macroeconomic shifts shaped poverty trends in Pakistan, explaining the sharp decline in the 1980s and the significant rise in the 1990s. It develops medium‑term projections under a “business as usual” scenario, assessing likely poverty outcomes. The analysis also considers the impact of balance of payments adjustments and fiscal stimulus measures, highlighting which m ..

This study provides guidelines for developing PPP case studies in health and illustrates them through a partnership between a private medical college and a public hospital in Abbottabad. The case highlights how synergy, strong leadership, shared objectives, governance reforms, legal safeguards, and external support can foster successful collaboration. By analyzing opportunities and challenges, the ..

The Social Policy and Development Centre (SPDC) has a tradition of bringing out a Research Report every year containing analysis of the proposals for expenditure and taxation in the Federal Budget from the viewpoint of their impact on the economy and people of Pakistan. This year’s report contains 24 articles on various aspects of the Budget of 2000- 01, written by staff members of SPDC. We hope ..

Alternative Delivery Mechanisms for Social Services: Some Case Studies from Pakistan ..

SPDC’s study provides an independent assessment of the federal budget 1999-2000, examining revenue measures, expenditure priorities, and their implications for growth and equity. By highlighting trade‑offs and policy gaps, the report offers evidence to strengthen fiscal management and guide future reforms.   ..

Reliable demographic data is vital for planning and policy. This study reviews Pakistan’s 1998 Population Census, analyzing its findings, methodology, and implications for resource distribution and development. The report provides evidence to inform debates on census quality and its role in shaping economic and social policy. ..

The report provides an independent review of the 1999-2000 provincial budgets, examining revenue mobilization, expenditure priorities, and intergovernmental transfers. By highlighting key trends and policy implications, the report offers evidence to strengthen provincial fiscal management and improve resource allocation. ..

This study provides additional evidence on poverty trends, using econometric modeling to explain shifts in incidence and distribution across time. By refining projections and testing alternative scenarios, the report offers insights into the drivers of poverty reduction and persistence, supporting more effective policy design. ..

This study evaluates the impact of adjustment policies on Pakistan’s social development, focusing on poverty, education, health, and welfare outcomes. By analyzing trade‑offs between stabilization and human development, the report provides evidence to guide policies that protect vulnerable groups while sustaining economic reform. ..

Economic downturns affect not just fiscal stability, but they also reshape livelihoods and social welfare. This research examines the social consequences of Pakistan’s economic crisis, analyzing its effects on poverty, employment, and human development. ..

Gender Inequality in Developing Countries: A Case Study of Pakistan ..

The report has used 37 indicators relating to the education, health, water supply income and wealth, agriculture, housing transportation and labour force sectors to rank districts of Pakistan in terms of the level of social and economic development. The paper demonstrates the importance of education indicators in determining the overall level of social development, especially in terms of female li ..

This report reviews SKAA’s changes in lease and development processes, highlighting decentralization of decision‑making, streamlined procedures, and the role of community‑based organizations in mobilization. Mobile lease camps and one‑window operations have improved access for residents, while staff training has strengthened grassroots engagement. Together, these reforms demonstrate how in ..

This report compiles a dozen essays relating to the state of the economy, budgetary trends, accuracy of budgetary proposals, evaluation of the taxation proposals, development priorities and the macro economic impact of the budget on growth, inflation, savings and investments, external sector, poverty and inter-governmental fiscal relations. Special effort has been made to highlight the impact of t ..

This study reviews fiscal decentralization across Asian countries, covering expenditure responsibilities, tax assignments, transfers, and sub-national borrowing. It highlights best practices and pitfalls, analyzing how decentralization affects public spending, fiscal deficits, and service delivery. By drawing lessons from diverse experiences, the report offers guidance for Pakistan’s reforms tow ..

This report analyzes Pakistan’s 1997-98 federal budget, set against the weak macroeconomic backdrop of 1996-97 and the policy shift introduced by the newly elected government. Covering debt management, fiscal projections, NFC Award implications, and social sector allocations, the study provides an objective appraisal of how fiscal instruments can support stabilization, growth, and poverty reduct ..

This report is a compilation of articles produced after the announcement of the provincial budgets. We hope that our analyses will represent an objective appraisal of the state of affairs and will be of some use to the readers. ..

The Social Action Program (SAP) was designed to expand access to education, health, water supply, and sanitation across Pakistan. This study provides an independent evaluation of SAP’s performance, examining achievements, shortcomings, and institutional challenges. The report offers lessons to strengthen social sector delivery and ensure more equitable development outcomes. ..

Fiscal transfers underpin provincial capacity to deliver social services. This SPDC report, prepared in the context of the newly constituted National Finance Commission (NFC), examines the evolution of revenue sharing in Pakistan, compares international practices, and evaluates recent and impending changes. It highlights federal and provincial perspectives, offering evidence to guide reforms that ..

This study measures continuation rates in Pakistan’s primary schools (1972–1993), examining gender and class‑wise patterns against factors such as school and teacher availability, urbanization, income, and female literacy. Results show that access to schools and teachers most strongly influences retention across provinces, while higher per capita income significantly improves female completi ..

This report investigates district‑level disparities in social development and their links to economic progress. It identifies regions with low rankings in education, health, water supply, and other basic services, highlighting where targeted allocations under the Social Action Program (SAP) can reduce inequality. By examining whether socially underdeveloped districts are also economically constr ..

Held in Copenhagen in 1995, the Summit placed social development at the heart of global agendas, emphasizing poverty eradication, equity, and human resource investment. This SPDC report explores its implications for Pakistan, highlighting the need for transparent governance, gender equity, and universal access to education and health. It examines how these commitments can shape policies, strengthe ..

This report examines how Pakistan can strengthen financing and expenditure planning to meet the growing demands of education, health, and other social services. It highlights strategies for mobilizing domestic resources, improving fiscal efficiency, and aligning allocations with equity and development priorities. By addressing gaps in revenue generation and expenditure management, the study provid ..

This SPDC compilation brings together analyses on the state of the economy, debt dynamics, fiscal adjustment, and the impact of budgetary measures on poverty, social development, and provincial finances. Offering an objective appraisal of the 1996‑97 Budget, the report highlights options for resource mobilization and expenditure planning to strengthen Pakistan’s social sectors. ..

This report analyzes the rapid expansion of Pakistan’s public debt and the rising burden of debt servicing on fiscal sustainability. It explores the structural causes of debt accumulation, the implications for development spending, and the challenges of balancing resource mobilization with social sector priorities. The study highlights the risks of a deepening debt trap and outlines policy optio ..

The report presents a framework for linking social sector priorities with macro‑economic planning in Pakistan. It emphasizes the need to align resource mobilization, expenditure strategies, and development objectives to ensure that growth translates into improved education, health, and welfare outcomes. By integrating social policy into economic planning, the study highlights pathways to reduce ..

This report outlines the creation of a comprehensive database to support integrated revenue and expenditure modeling for Pakistan’s social sectors. It emphasizes the importance of reliable data systems in guiding fiscal planning, resource allocation, and policy analysis. By linking social sector priorities with financial frameworks, the study provides tools to strengthen evidence‑based decisio ..

This study examines strategies for achieving optimal enrollment and ensuring cost‑effective expenditures within the public school system. It highlights the challenges of resource allocation, efficiency in spending, and equitable access to education. It also provides a framework to improve educational outcomes, reduce disparities, and maximize the impact of public investment in schooling. ..

This report specifies a comprehensive model designed to align social sector priorities with fiscal planning in Pakistan. It provides a structured framework for linking revenue mobilization and expenditure allocation, ensuring that policy objectives in education, health, and welfare are supported by sound financial strategies. Integrating social and economic dimensions, the study offers tools for e ..

A Study on Improving the Efficiency and Effectiveness of Spending in the Social Sectors and Increasing Resource Mobilisation in the Provinces (5 volumes) ..

Fiscal Policy in Pakistan ..